Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

Working principle & Instrumentation 

DTA instrumentation 

 

Thermal analysis are Techniques in which a physical property of a substance is measured as a function of temperature whilst the substance is subjected to a controlled temperature programme certain techniques lie in this here we discuse DTA in deatail.

DTA mesures the temperature difference between the sample and refrence materila as they both undergo the same temperature programme. The record is the differential thermal or DTA curve or thermogram; the temperature difference (∆T) should be plotted on the ordinate with endothermic reactions downwards and temperature or time on the abscissa increasing from left to right. The term quantitative differential thermal analysis (quantitative DTA) covers those uses of DTA where the equipment is designed to produce quantitative results in terms of energy and/or any other physical parameter.

Sample Preparation Samples are usually finely ground and placed in a sample holder. It's crucial to have a representative sample and to account for factors like sample size and packing density, as they influence the thermal behavior.

Results interpretation The base line corresponds to the portion or portions of the DTA curve, thermogram or thermograph for which ∆T is approximately zero. 

A peak is that portion of the DTA curve which departs from and subsequently returns to the base line. 

Endothermic peaks or endotherm, is a peak where the temperature of the sample falls below that of the reference material, i.e., ∆T is negative. 

Exothermic peaks or exotherm, is a peak where the temperature of the sample rises above that of the reference material, i.e., ∆T is positive. 

Peak width is the time or temperature interval between the points of departure from and return to the base line. There are several ways of interpolating the base

line as peak height peak width , peak area etc.

DTA thermogram 

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Dark web

 

The dark web is a part of the internet that isn't indexed by search engines. 

The dark web is the world wide web content that exists on darknets: overlay networks that use the Internet but require specific software, configurations, or authorization to access.

Through the dark web, private computer networks can communicate and conduct business anonymously without divulging identifying information, such as a user's location. The dark web forms a small part of the deep web, the part of the Web not indexed by web search engines, although sometimes the term deep web is mistakenly used to refer specifically to the dark web.

The darknets which constitute the dark web include small, friend-to-friend peer-to-peer networks, as well as large, popular networks such as Tor, Freenet, I2P, and Riffle operated by public organizations and individuals. Users of the dark web refer to the regular web as Clearnet due to its unencrypted nature. The Tor dark web or onionland uses the traffic anonymization technique of onion routing under the network's top-level domain suffix .onion.

Deep vs Dark web and Clear web

The terms “deep web” and “dark web” are sometimes used interchangeably, but they are not the same. Deep web refers to anything on the internet that is not indexed by and, therefore, accessible via a search engine like Google. Deep web content includes anything behind a paywall or requires sign-in credentials. It also includes any content that its owners have blocked web crawlers from indexing.

Estimates place the size of the deep web at between 96% and 99% of the internet. Only a tiny portion of the internet is accessible through a standard web browser—generally known as the “clear web” some time surface web.

No one really knows the size of the dark web, but most estimates put it at around 5% of the total internet. Again, not all the dark web is used for illicit purposes despite its ominous-sounding name.

Dark web browsers

Accessing the dark web requires the use of an anonymizing browser called Tor. The Tor browser routes your web page requests through a series of proxy servers operated by thousands of volunteers around the globe, rendering your IP address unidentifiable and untraceable. Tor works like magic, but the result is an experience that’s like the dark web itself: unpredictable, unreliable and maddeningly slow.

Dark web serch engenis

Dark web search engines exist, but even the best are challenged to keep up with the constantly shifting landscape. The experience is reminiscent of searching the web in the late 1990s. Even one of the best search engines, called Grams, returns results that are repetitive and often irrelevant to the query. Link lists like The Hidden Wiki are another option, but even indices also return a frustrating number of timed-out connections and 404 errors.

Dark web websites

Dark web websites look pretty much like any other site, but there are important differences. One is the naming structure. Instead of ending in .com or .co, dark web websites end in .onion. That’s “a special-use top level domain suffix designating an anonymous hidden service reachable via the Tor network,” according to Wikipedia. Browsers with the appropriate proxy can reach these sites, but others can’t.

Dark web websites also use a scrambled naming structure that creates URLs that are often impossible to remember. For example, a popular commerce site called Dream Market goes by the unintelligible address of “eajwlvm3z2lcca76.onion.”

Many dark websites are set up by scammers, who constantly move around to avoid the wrath of their victims. Even commerce sites that may have existed for a year or more can suddenly disappear if the owners decide to cash in and flee with the escrow money they’re holding on behalf of customers.

For sale in the dark web

The dark web has flourished thanks to bitcoin, the crypto-currency that enables two parties to conduct a trusted transaction without knowing each other’s identity. “Bitcoin has been a major factor in the growth of the dark web, and the dark web has been a big factor in the growth of bitcoin,” says Tiquet.

Nearly all dark web commerce sites conduct transactions in bitcoin or some variant, but that doesn’t mean it’s safe to do business there. The inherent anonymity of the place attracts scammers and thieves, but what do you expect when buying guns or drugs is your objective?

Dark web commerce sites have the same features as any e-retail operation, including ratings/reviews, shopping carts and forums, but there are important differences. One is quality control. When both buyers and sellers are anonymous, the credibility of any ratings system is dubious. Ratings are easily manipulated, and even sellers with long track records have been known to suddenly disappear with their customers’ crypto-coins, only to set up shop later under a different alias.

Some time secrecy compromise on dark web 

If you find your own information on the dark web, there’s precious little you can do about it, but at least you’ll know you’ve been compromised. Bottom line: If you can tolerate the lousy performance, unpredictable availability, and occasional shock factor of the dark web, it’s worth a visit. Just don’t buy anything there.

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Cultured meat (Lab grown meat)

Cultured meat (also known by other names like lab grown meat , artificial meat is occasionally used) is meat produced by culturing animal cells in vitro. It is a form of cellular agriculture.

Lab-grown meat or Cultured meat is a genetically engineered product that uses biotechnology. 

Cultured meat is produced using tissue engineering techniques pioneered in regenerative medicine. Jason Matheny popularized the concept in the early 2000s after he co-authored a paper on cultured meat production and created New Harvest, the world's first nonprofit organization dedicated to in-vitro meat research.

Cultured meat has the potential to address the environmental impact of meat production, animal welfare, food security and human health, in addition to its potential mitigation of climate change.

In 2013, Mark Post created a hamburger patty made from tissue grown outside of an animal. Since then, other cultured meat prototypes have gained media attention: SuperMeat opened a farm-to-fork restaurant called "The Chicken" in Tel Aviv to test consumer reaction to its "Chicken" burger, while the "world's first commercial sale of cell-cultured meat" occurred in December 2020 at Singapore restaurant 1880, where cultured meat manufactured by US firm Eat Just was sold.

While most efforts focus on common meats such as pork, beef, and chicken which constitute the bulk of consumption in developed countries, companies such as Orbillion Bio focused on high end or unusual meats including elk, lamb, bison, and Wagyu beef. Avant Meats brought cultured grouper to market in 2021, while other companies have pursued different species of fish and other seafood.

The production process is constantly evolving, driven by companies and research institutions. The applications for cultured meat led to ethical, health, environmental, cultural, and economic discussions. Data published by the non-governmental organization Good Food Institute found that in 2021 cultivated meat companies attracted $140 million in Europe. Cultured meat is mass-produced in Israel. The first restaurant to serve cultured meat opened in Singapore in 2021.

Nomenclature 

Besides cultured meat, the terms healthy meat, slaughter-free meat, in vitro meat, vat-grown meat, lab-grown meat,cell-based meat, clean meat, cultivated meat and synthetic meat have been used to describe the product. Artificial meat is occasionally used, although that specific term has multiple definitions.

Why was need felt for cultured meat

70 billion land animals, and possibly trillions of marine animals, are killed for human consumption each year. A majority of these animals are raised in factory farms, where they experience brutal forms of abuse in severely overcrowded and putrid conditions for the entirety of their short lives.

Major meat producers often defend factory farming as the most efficient way to meet the global demand for meat. But evidence shows that these facilities are disastrous for the environment, nearby communities, consumer health, and animal welfare.

It shouldn’t have to be this way. It's time to fix our broken food system. It's time to look for alternatives. Lab-grown meat could hold the key.

bs are only involved now, in order to support ongoing research and development. Once they begin to produce at scale, lab-grown meat companies will swap out laboratories for facilities that resemble microbreweries—a far cry from the industrial farms that profit off of the horrific exploitation, abuse, and slaughter of sentient .

Environmental effects 

The scientific research is clear: factory farming is an environmental disaster. The industrial farming of animals is a major driver of climate change, deforestation, air and water pollution, and other planetary hazards.

Industrial livestock systems – particularly cattle farms – are responsible for the emission of huge quantities of greenhouse gases like CO₂ and methane. But growing meat from cells can have a similar – and sometimes even worse – environmental footprint.

How is lab grown meat made

Instead of killing animals for their meat, the process of making lab-grown meat starts with the careful removal of a small number of muscle cells from a living animal, typically using local anesthesia to provide relief from pain. The animal will experience a momentary twinge of discomfort, not unlike the feeling of getting a routine blood test at the doctor’s office. This process is much less harmful than the lifetime of pain and terror animals experience leading up to their horrific final moments at the slaughter house.

Lab grown meat has the exact same animal cells as what we traditionally consider “meat”—the flesh of an animal. The difference has to do with how it gets to your plate: lab-grown meat comes from cells harvested from a living animal, while conventional meat comes from an animal that’s raised and killed for human consumption.

Then, a lab technician places the harvested cells in bioreactors before adding them to a bath of nutrients. The cells grow and multiply, producing real muscle tissue, which scientists then shape into edible “scaffoldings.” Using these scaffoldings, they can transform lab-grown cells into steak, chicken nuggets, hamburger patties, or salmon sashimi. The final product is a real cut of meat, ready to be marinated, breaded, grilled, baked, or fried—no animal slaughter required.

First public trial 

The first cultured beef burger patty was created by Mark Post at Maastricht University in 2013.[54] It was made from over 20,000 thin strands of muscle tissue, cost over $300,000 and needed 2 years to produce.

The burger was tested on live television in London on 5 August 2013. It was cooked by chef Richard McGeown of Couch's Great House Restaurant, Polperro, Cornwall, and tasted by critics Hanni Rützler, a food researcher from the Future Food Studio, and Josh Schonwald. Rützler stated, "There is really a bite to it, there is quite some flavour with the browning. I know there is no fat in it so I didn't really know how juicy it would be, but there is quite some intense taste; it's close to meat, it's not that juicy, but the consistency is perfect. This is meat to me... It's really something to bite on and I think the look is quite similar." Rützler added that even in a blind trial she would have taken the product for meat rather than a soya copy.

Lab grown meat effects

Some scientists and their research shows some concerns about Meat produced from cultured cells could be 25 times worse for the climate than regular beef unless scientists find ways to overhaul energy-intensive steps in its production.

Some researchers speculate that depending on the efficiency of the production process, the rise of the cultured meat industry could actually make climate change worse than traditional beef production. One issue is the longer lasting impact of carbon pollution versus methane gas pollution.

"Lab meat doesn't solve anything from an environmental perspective, since the energy emissions are so high," said Marco Springmann, a senior environmental researcher at the University of Oxford.

Some lab-grown meat contains an animal by-product known as fetal bovine serum (FBS). Slaughterhouses obtain fetal bovine serum by collecting blood from the unborn calves of pregnant cows after they’re killed. San Francisco-based lab-grown meat producer Eat Just uses a “very low level” of the serum in its chicken, which is the first lab-grown meat product to hit the market.

However, companies are quickly pivoting to find alternatives to FBS. In response to ethical concerns about using a slaughter house by product in the otherwise lab-grown meat, Dutch startup Mosa Meat revealed this year that it had successfully eliminated FBS from its process. Eat Just is also developing an animal-free alternative to fetal bovine serum.

Scientists are working for try to make lab grown meat more healthy which full fill nutritions requirements with in  low cast.

History

The theoretical possibility of growing meat in an industrial setting has long been of interest. In a 1931 essay published by various periodicals and later included in his work Thoughts and Adventures, British statesman Winston Churchill wrote: "We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium."

Initial research 

In the 1950s, Dutch researcher Willem van Eelen independently came up with the idea for cultured meat. As a prisoner of war during the Second World War, Van Eelen suffered from starvation, leaving him passionate about food production and food security. He attended a university lecture discussing the prospects of preserved meat. The earlier discovery of cell lines provided the basis for the idea.

Vitro cultivation of first muscle fibers 

In vitro cultivation of muscle fibers was first performed successfully in 1971 when pathologist Russel Ross cultured guinea-pig aorta.

Tissue engineering 

In 1991, Jon F. Vein secured patent US 6835390 for the production of tissue-engineered meat for human consumption, wherein muscle and fat would be grown in an integrated fashion to create food products.

Cultured meat production 

In 2001, dermatologist Wiete Westerhof along with van Eelen and businessperson Willem van Kooten announced that they had filed for a worldwide patent on a process to produce cultured meat.[43] The process employed a matrix of collagen seeded with muscle cells bathed in a nutritious solution and induced to divide.

That same year, NASA began conducting cultured meat experiments, with the intent of allowing astronauts to grow meat instead of transporting it. In partnership with Morris Benjaminson, they cultivated goldfish and turkey.

In 2003, Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr exhibited a few centimeters of "steak", grown from frog stem cells, which they cooked and ate. The goal was to start a conversation surrounding the ethics of cultured meat—"was it ever alive?", "was it ever killed?", "is it in any way disrespectful to an animal to throw it away?"

In the early 2000s, American public health student Jason Matheny traveled to India and visited a factory chicken farm. He was appalled by the implications of this system. Matheny later teamed up with three scientists involved in NASA's efforts. In 2004, Matheny founded New Harvest to encourage development by funding research. In 2005 the four published the first peer-reviewed literature on the subject.

In 2008, PETA offered a $1 million prize to the first company to bring cultured chicken meat to consumers by 2012. The contestant was required to complete two tasks to earn the prize:

- produce a cultured chicken meat product that was indistinguishable from real chicken and

- produce the product in large enough quantities to be competitively sold in at least 10 states.

The contest was later extended until 4 March 2014. The deadline eventually expired without a winner.

In 2008, the Dutch government invested $4 million into experiments regarding cultured meat. The In Vitro Meat Consortium, a group formed by international researchers, held the first international conference hosted by the Food Research Institute of Norway in April. Time magazine declared cultured meat production to be one of the 50 break through ideas of 2009. In November 2009, scientists from the Netherlands announced they had managed to grow meat using cells from a live pig.

First public trial

The first cultured beef burger patty was created by Mark Post at Maastricht University in 2013. It was made from over 20,000 thin strands of muscle tissue, cost over $300,000 and needed 2 years to produce.

Industrial development

Between 2011 and 2017, many cultured meat startups were launched. Memphis Meats (now Upside Foods[58]) launched a video in February 2016, showcasing its cultured beef meatball. In March 2017, it showcased chicken tenders and duck a l'orange, the first cultured poultry shown to the public.

An Israeli company, SuperMeat, ran a crowdfunding campaign in 2016, for its work on cultured chicken.

Finless Foods, a San Francisco-based company working on cultured fish, was founded in June 2016. In March 2017 it commenced laboratory operations.

In March 2018, Eat Just (in 2011 founded as Hampton Creek in San Francisco, later known as Just, Inc.) claimed to be able to offer a consumer product from cultured meat by the end of 2018. According to CEO Josh Tetrick the technology was already there. JUST had about 130 employees and a research department of 55 scientists, where cultured meat from poultry, pork and beef was researched. JUST has received investments from Chinese billionaire Li Ka-shing, Yahoo! co-founder Jerry Yang and according to Tetrick also by Heineken International and others.

On 27 April 2022, the European Commission approved the request for the collection of signatures for the European Citizens' Initiative End The Slaughter Age to shift subsidies from animal husbandry to cellular agriculture.

Market entry

European Union 

In the European Union, novel foods such as cultured meat products have to go through a testing period of about 18 months during which a company must prove to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) that their product is safe. In March 2022, cultured meat producers had reached the level of attempting to gain regulatory approval from European Union supranational institutions coming just before mass goods could be sold to consumers. By February 2023, none had yet submitted a novel food dossier for approval by the EFSA. Legal experts explained this as having to do with the fact that, although the EFSA's novel food procedure has been well-established since 1997 (unlike in other jurisdictions, that still have or had to develop certain regulatory standards), it is a long and complicated process in which companies can have little imput once they have submitted their request, unlike cultured meat startups in the United States (who could easily communicate back and forth with the FDA to clarify any issues), and in the UK, Singapore and Israel (where governments have implemented a 'single point of contact' responsible for the overall process).

Israel

In November 2020, SuperMeat opened a 'test restaurant' in Ness Ziona, Israel, right next to its pilot plant; journalists, experts and a small number of consumers could book an appointment to taste the novel food there, while looking through a glass window into the production facility on the other side. The restaurant was not yet fully open to the public, because as of June 2021 SuperMeat still needed to wait for regulatory approval to start mass production for public consumption, and because the COVID-19 pandemic restricted restaurant operations. By February 2023, Israeli authorities had established a regulatory structure similar to that of Singapore, and shown a general willingness to work towards approval (as well as financing research for cultivated food innovation), but were still in the process of developing safety regulations in consultations with researchers and other experts. For example, the Israeli Health Ministry and UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) co-organised a convention of cultivated food safety regulation experts in September 2022.

Singapore

On 2 December 2020, the Singapore Food Agency approved the "chicken bites" produced by Eat Just for commercial sale. It marked the first time that a cultured meat product passed the safety review (which took 2 years) of a food regulator, and was widely regarded as a milestone for the industry. The chicken bits were scheduled for introduction in Singaporean restaurants. Restaurant "1880" became the first to serve cultured meat to customers on Saturday 19 December 2020. In January 2023, the SFA also granted regulatory approval for the production of cultured meat with serum-free media to Eat Just' subsidiary GOOD Meat, which had introduced its clean chicken product in several more Singaporese restaurants as well as hawker centres and food delivery services since 2020, and was constructing the bioreactors for its new facility in Singapore. This world-first approval was said to be a milestone in making cultivated meat production more scalable and efficient.

United States

In May 2022, Finless Foods launched pokè-style plant-based tuna product at National Restaurant Association's Show, with availability at restaurants and foodservice operators across the United States. In November 2022, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) completed the pre-market consultation of Upside Foods (formerly Memphis Meats), concluding that its products were safe to eat, a first for cultivated meat companies in the United States.[99] Only the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) still had to finalise the labelling and inspection process; as of April 2023, this last hurdle to U.S. market entry was expected to be overcome somewhere in 2023.

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Science

The knowledge that provides understanding of this world and how it works, is science.

Systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation.

The word Science comes from Latin word "scientia" meaning "knowledge" and in the broadest sense it is any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive practice capable of resulting in prediction. Science can also be understood as a highly skilled technique or practice.

Science is defined as the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.

Here are some other common definitions of science

A branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws: for example, mathematical science Systemic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observationsand experimentation Systematized knowledge in general any of the particular branches of natural or physical sciencesKnowledge of facts or principles; knowledge gained by systematic study Skill especially reflecting a precise application of facts or principle.

In more contemporary terms, science is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific process or method in order to organize a body of knowledge gained through research.

The methods involved in Scientific Research

Science is a continuing effort to discover and increase knowledge through research. Scientists make observations, record measureable data related to their observations, and analyze the information at hand to construct theoretical explanations of the phenomenon involved.

The methods involved in scientific research include making a hypothesis and conducting experiments to test the hypothesis under controlled conditions. In this process, scientists publish their work so other scientists can repeat the experiment and further strengthen the reliability of results.

Scientific fields are broadly divided into natural sciences (the study of natural phenomena) and social sciences (the study of human behavior and society). However, in both these divisions, knowledge is obtained through observation and must be capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under similar conditions.

There are some disciplines like health science and engineering that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences.

Scientific Method 

Most scientific investigations use some form of the scientific method. The scientific method tries to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way, eventually allowing researchers to formulate testable predictions.

Scientists make observations of natural phenomenon and then through experimentation they try to simulate natural events under controlled conditions. Based on observations, a scientist may generate a model and then attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of mathematical or logical representation.

Scientist will then gather the necessary empirical evidence to generate a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.

This hypothesis is used to form predictions which in turn will be tested by experiment or observations using the scientific method. Statistical analysis is commonly used to interpret results of experiments, and evaluations are made to decide whether a hypothesis should be accepted, rejected, or merely examined again with modifications. This inspires ongoing research and the overall accumulation of knowledge in that particular field of science.

History of Science

History of Science start with the creation of world but The earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age[5] and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance.

The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".

Modern science is typically divided into three major branches.

• The Physical Sciences

Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy .

• Earth sciences

Geology, Oceanography, Metrology. 

• The Life Sciences (Biology)

Botany, Zoology, Genetics .

For further details of these branches please click on the link of Article.

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Volkswagen

 

Cogeneration plant

The official website of Volkswagen is, 

www.volkswagen.com in German .

The official website of Volkswagen group is,

www.volkswagenag.com

Volkswagen Group, also called Volkswagen AG, major German automobile manufacturer, founded by the German government in 1937 to mass-produce a low-priced “people’s car.” Headquarters are in Wolfsburg, Germany.

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TV Terminologies: Important terms to know

There are several words or terminologies that we come across while reading or discussing Televisions (TVs). It becomes especially irritating when you have to buy a TV and you are faced with too many unknown terminologies. To help you with this issue and to make you familiar with these unfamiliar terms, we have prepared a list of TV terminologies.

Smart TV

A TV set with an internal operating system and internet connectivity is called a "Smart TV".

Smart TV, also known as a connected TV, is a traditional television set with integrated Internet and interactive Web 2.0 features, which allows users to stream music and videos, browse the internet, and view photos. Smart TVs are a technological convergence of computers, televisions, and digital media players.

Android TV

Android TV is a smart TV that uses the Android operating system. 

Generally Android TV is a smart TV operating system based on Android and developed by Google for television sets, digital media players, set-top boxes, and soundbars. A successor to Google TV, it features a user interface designed around content discovery and voice search, content aggregation from various media apps and services, and integration with other recent Google technologies such as Assistant, Cast, and Knowledge Graph.

Chromecast

Chromecast built-in is a technology that lets you cast your favorite entertainment and apps from your phone, tablet or laptop right to your TV or speakers.

DTS

DTS stand for Digital Theater Systems. Eventually, the company officially shortened its name to the acronym DTS.

A brief background on the significance of DTS in the evolution of the home theater includes:

DTS was founded in 1993 as a competitor to Dolby Labs in the development of surround sound audio encoding, decoding, and processing technology for cinema and home theater applications.

Home theater is full of monikers and acronyms. When it comes to surround sound, things can get confusing. DTS is one of the most recognizable acronyms in home theater audio. DTS is both a company name and a label used to identify a group of surround sound audio technologies.

DTS is both a company name and a label used to identify a group of surround sound audio technologies.

Transform your favorite shows and movies with the ultra-vivid picture of Dolby Vision and the immersive sound of Dolby Atmos for a premium TV experience.

Aspect ratio

Aspect ratio refers to the width and height ratio of a TV screen and defines the shape of the TV. There are various aspect ratios for TVs and it varies as per the resolution. Certain aspect ratios are suitable for certain resolutions only, designed to offer you the best picture quality without any distortion or stretching, and to prevent any blank space on any side of the picture.

The most common aspect ratio for TVs today is 16:9. When your TV’s content and aspect ratio doesn’t match, black bars appear in the blank space (vertical bars are called pillarboxes and the horizontal bars are called letterboxes). In some TVs, you can solve this problem either by zooming in the picture, cropping the picture, or using a mix of both.

Upscaling

Upscaling basically means stretching an image with a lower resolution to fit on a larger display. In this, the pixels of the image with low resolution are copied and are repeated to fill up the display of a higher resolution. Almost every TV comes with upscaling now. In the case of HD TVs, the upscaling process makes the lower resolution images look bigger and better on the screen by increasing the pixel count.

Bezel

In simple terms, the bezel means the frame around the screen or the structural form that you can see in the front of the TV, except its screen.

Bazel less means boarder less or frame less means very narrow line of frame present in it is almost negligible or tatally absent only screen can be seen.

Contrast Ratio

The contrast ratio in a TV means the ratio between its brightest and darkest settings.

The contrast ratio of a TV can be measured on two bases i.e., native and dynamic contrast ratio. The native contrast ratio, also known as static or on-screen contrast ratio, represents the role of the TV panel while the dynamic contrast ratio involves fluctuating the LED backlights installed on the back of the screen for better contrast.

CRT

CRT or Cathode Ray Tube (also known as picture tube) in CRT TV is a vacuum tube where the images we see on TV are created.

The phosphor-coated or fluorescent screen is scanned by electron beams to form the images. In some version it have only one picture tube and some have three for primary colours called read blue and green.

Ethernet port

The ethernet port of your TV allows you to connect your TV to the internet with the help of a cable.

Frame rate

Frame rate means the speed at which the consecutive image slides are displayed. It is usually expressed as frames per second or fps. Higher the frame rate, the higher the number of frames used and it will mean more bandwidth for streaming the video.

HDMI

HDMI or High-Definition Multimedia Interface is a digital interface that helps in transferring high-definition audio and video signals through a cable. It can be used to transfer a video quality of up to 4k Ultra HD resolution, 3D videos, and multichannel surround sound in high quality.

HDR

HDR or High Dynamic Range is a feature that affects the TV’s contrast ratio and color accuracy and helps make the pictures look more realistic.

KHz

KiloHertz or kHz represents a thousand frequency cycles per second. In simple words, it is a measurement of frequency i.e., the number of times a wave repeats itself in a second. 1 kHz means 1000 times per second. It is also used to measure the signal bandwidth, digital as well as analog. In the case of TVs, higher kHz means better sound quality.

OLED

OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) is a display technology that uses thin organic films between the two electrodes to produce light with the help of electricity. The organic process of creating the images on the screen with the light produced is called electroluminescence, meaning that the display is self-illuminating and does not need any backlight. OLED TV panels are lighter and thinner in comparison to LCD TVs and also help in saving energy.

Over the top services

Over-the-top services or OTT services are streaming services that offer media content directly to the viewers through the internet. These services are provided by bypassing the traditional platforms like broadcast, cable, and satellite TV can be streamed on an internet-connected TV like Smart TV.

Pixelation

Pixelation means stretching of the pixels beyond their original size and it is usually caused due to a weak signal.

Plasma

Plasma is a screen technology that was used in making the first flat display panels for large TVs and was a dominant TV technology just a few years back. A plasma display panel has small cells (like tiny CFLs) which are coated with red, green, or blue phosphorus. The cells also have neon or xenon gas inside them which creates invisible ultraviolet lights. These lights are then converted into the red, green, or blue light that we see on the screen via the light emitted by these cells.

When we compare plasma with LEDs, plasma TVs are better as they have better picture quality and viewing angles. But, it also has many disadvantages, one of them being that it is now outdated technology. Also, the little cells or gas packets behind the panels can cause burn-in on your screen i.e. burn the images in your screen to show them even when your TV is switched off. They are also available only in larger sizes and are not that energy-efficient.

Quantum Dots

Quantum dots can be defined as nanocrystals that absorb light and convert its wavelength. These are used in QLED TVs where they are placed in front of a normal LED backlight in a layer. All these crystals emit individual colors of their own based on their size. Though the light emitted by these quantum dots still goes through the filter, the lights are highly pure that helps in expanding the TV’s color range, and creates more intense and deeper colors. These dots also enhance the light efficiency of the TV and thus produce brighter pictures.

Resolution

Resolution can be defined as the number of pixels or dots that create the pictures that you see on your TV screen. It is denoted as the number of pixels in one horizontal line by the number of pixels present in one vertical line. Higher the number of pixels, the higher the resolution, and the better the picture quality.

There are four resolutions commonly used in TVs these days and each of them has a name as which are 1280×780 (HD), 1920×1080 (Full HD), 3840×2160 (Ultra HD/4k), and 7620×4380 (Ultra HD/8k). TV resolution is usually indicated in two ways, for example, 1080i or 1080p resolution. When you have both the options in front of you, choose the latter one. The “i” means interlaced and the “p” means progressive. The difference between both is that the interlaced videos display every alternate horizontal pixel line while the progressive lines display every horizontal pixel line, making the picture quality of progressive videos better than its counter part.

Refresh Rate

Refresh rate is defined as the number of times your TV screen refreshes itself in a second. It is denoted by Hertz or Hz. A higher refresh rate usually means smoother motion on the screen, but not always. However, the refresh rate should not be confused with the frame rate (fps). Frame rate represents the number of frames displayed on the screen per second. For clear motion and images, make sure that the refresh rate and frame rate of your TV match or in other words are the same, for example, if the refresh rate is 60 Hz, the frame rate should be 60 fps.

Soap Opera Effect

Soap Opera Effect is a visual effect created by most of the TVs by default. It involves creating additional frames in between the already existing ones by motion interpolation process to make the pictures look more crisp and realistic. It shows the content on your screen at a refresh rate that is higher than the original source of the content it is handy just as blur adjustment You can turn it off on in your TV from the settings.

Viewing Angle

Viewing angle means the maximum angle at which you can watch your TV screen comfortably without any color shift or loss of brightness. The ideal position is directly in front of the TV screen and at eye level. As per LCD/ LED TV manufacturers, the best viewing angle for your TV is 88o or more. At this angle, you get clear and well-defined images with the best color accuracy.

UHD

UHD or Ultra High Definition represents a higher resolution for the TV display. UHD TVs come in 4k (3840×2160) and 8k (7620×4380). These resolutions have a higher number of pixels than a normal HD TV. UHD displays are used in larger TVs, so you can enjoy a clearer and crisp image even while sitting relatively closer to the TV.

Upscaling

Upscaling basically means stretching an image with a lower resolution to fit on a larger display. In this, the pixels of the image with low resolution are copied and are repeated to fill up the display of a higher resolution. Almost every TV comes with upscaling now. In the case of HD TVs, the upscaling process makes the lower resolution images look bigger and better on the screen by increasing the pixel count.

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Historical Review, Invention of Television

In the word Television Tele-” is a prefix that means “far off” or “operating at a distance.”  The word "television" was agreed upon quite rapidly, and while other terms like "iconoscope" and "emitron" referred to patented devices that were used in some electronic television systems, television is the one that stuck.

A television basically consists of three parts: the TV camera that turns a picture and sound into a signal;  the TV transmitter that sends the signal through the air;  and the TV receiver (the TV set in the home) that captures the signal and turns it back into picture and sound.  TV creates moving pictures by repeatedly capturing still pictures and presenting these frames to your eyes quickly that they seem to be moving.  The images are flickering on the screen so fast that they fuse together in your brain to make a moving picture.

Earlier televisions were monochrome mono means single and chrome means colour, having single colour known as black and white televisions.

Historical review

No single inventor deserves credit for the television.  The idea was floating around long before the technology existed to make it happen, and many scientists and engineers made contributions that built on each other to eventually produce what we know as TV today.

Television's origins can be traced to the 1830s and '40s, when Samuel F.B.  Morse developed the telegraph, the system of sending messages (translated into beeping sounds) along wires.  Another important step forward came in 1876 in the form of Alexander Graham Bell's telephone, which allowed the human voice to travel through wires over long distances.

Both Bell and Thomas Edison speculated about the possibility of telephone-like devices that could transmit images as well as sounds.  But it was a German researcher who took the next important step towards developing the technology that made television possible.  In 1884, Paul Nipkow came up with a system of sending images through wires via spinning discs.  He called it the electric telescope, but it was essentially an early form of mechanical television.

The word "television" first appeared in 1907 in the discussion of a theoretical device that transported images across telegraph or telephone wires.  Ironically, this prediction was behind the times, as some of the first experiments into television used radio waves from the beginning.

TV Goes Electronic With Cathode Ray Tubes

In the early 1900s, both Russian physicist Boris Rosing and Scottish engineer Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton worked independently to improve on Nipkow's system by replacing the spinning discs with cathode ray tubes, a technology developed earlier by German physicist Karl Braun.  Swinton's system, which placed cathode ray tubes inside the camera that sent a picture, as well as inside the receiver, was essentially the earliest all-electronic television system.

Russian-born engineer Vladimir Zworykin had worked as Rosing's assistant before both of them emigrated following the Russian Revolution.  In 1923, Zworykin was employed at the Pittsburgh-based manufacturing company Westinghouse when he applied for his first television patent, for the “Iconoscope,” which used cathode ray tubes to transmit images.

 Meanwhile, Scottish engineer John Baird gave the world's first demonstration of true television before 50 scientists in central London in 1927. With his new invention, Baird formed the Baird Television Development Company, and in 1928 it achieved the first transatlantic television transmission between London and New York and the first transmission to a ship in the mid-Atlantic.  Baird is also credited with giving the first demonstration of both color and stereoscopic television.

Earlier television shows were in monochrome, but with advancements in technology, they also started coming in colored versions. And remote control invented later for more convinece. By clicking on link You can read the articles colour television and invention of remote control in detail.

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